Woodcut

Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking where an artist carves an image into a block of wood. They typically use gouges to carve the image, leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. The areas that are carved away do not hold ink, but the characters or images at surface level are coated with ink to create the print. Unlike wood engraving, which cuts the block in the end-grain, woodcut follows the wood grain. To apply ink, the surface is rolled over using an ink-covered roller called a brayer. This leaves ink on the flat surface but not in the non-printing areas.

When printing multiple colors, the paper can be aligned to a frame around the woodblocks, with each color using a different block. The process of carving the woodcut is known as “xylography,” but this term is seldom used in English for images on their own. However, it is used in relation to block books, which are small books that feature both text and images on the same block. Block books gained popularity in Europe during the latter part of the 15th century. A single-sheet woodcut refers to a woodcut that is presented as a standalone image or print, rather than as an illustration within a book.

Since its origins in China, the practice of woodcut has spread around the world from Europe to other parts of Asia, and to Latin America. [1]

Division of labour

In Europe as well as East Asia, it was traditional for the artist to solely design the woodcut while the carving of the block was entrusted to skilled craftsmen known as formschneider or block-cutters. Some of these formschneider gained recognition and established themselves as renowned individuals. Notably, Hieronymus Andreae, Hans Lützelburger, and Jost de Negker, who all ran workshops and worked as printers and publishers, are among the most well-known figures. The formschneider would subsequently pass the block to specialized printers. Additionally, there were other experts dedicated to creating the blank blocks.

Woodcuts are occasionally referred to as being “designed by” rather than “by” an artist in museums or books. However, most experts do not make this differentiation. The advantage of the division of labor was that a skilled artist could easily adjust to the medium without having to learn woodworking tools.

There were different ways to transfer the artist’s design onto the block for the cutter to use. The design could be made directly on the block, which was often whitened beforehand, or a drawing on paper could be attached to the block. In both cases, the artist’s original drawing would be ruined while the block was being cut. Tracing and other techniques were also employed.

During the early 20th century, artists in both Europe and East Asia started to undertake the entire artistic process independently. In Japan, this trend was known as s?saku-hanga (creative prints), distinguishing it from the shin-hanga movement (new prints) that adhered to conventional methods. Conversely, in the Western world, several artists opted for the simpler linocut technique.

Methods of printing

Unlike intaglio techniques such as etching and engraving, printing only requires low pressure. To achieve a good print, it is sufficient to apply ink to the block and firmly and evenly press it against the paper or cloth. In Europe, various types of wood, including boxwood and certain nut and fruit woods like pear or cherry, were commonly used. In Japan, the preferred wood was the cherry species Prunus serrulata.

When considering printing, there are three methods to take into account.

Stamping: Used for many fabrics and most early European woodcuts (1400–40). These were printed by putting the paper/fabric on a table or other flat surface with the block on top, and pressing or hammering the back of the block.
Rubbing: Apparently the most common method for Far Eastern printing on paper at all times. Used for European woodcuts and block-books later in the fifteenth century, and very widely for cloth. Also used for many Western woodcuts from about 1910 to the present. The block goes face up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top. The back is rubbed with a “hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton”. ^[3]A traditional Japanese tool used for this is called a baren . Later in Japan, complex wooden mechanisms were used to help hold the woodblock perfectly still and to apply proper pressure in the printing process. This was especially helpful once multiple colors were introduced and had to be applied with precision atop previous ink layers.
Printing in a press: presses only seem to have been used in Asia in relatively recent times. Printing-presses were used from about 1480 for European prints and block-books, and before that for woodcut book illustrations. Simple weighted presses may have been used in Europe before the print-press, but firm evidence is lacking. A deceased Abbess of Mechelen in 1465 had “ unum instrumentum ad imprintendum scripturas et ymagines … cum 14 aliis lapideis printis “—”an instrument for printing texts and pictures … with 14 stones for printing”. This is probably too early to be a Gutenberg -type printing press in that location. ^[3]

9 Types of Printmaking You Need to Know

Woodberry, in his 1883 book History of the Wood Engraving, stated that woodcuts played a significant role in the transformation of medieval life into modern life. Woodcuts not only brought about revolution in printmaking methods, but also greatly enhanced people’s access to literature and art.

Initially popular for its practical applications, such as printing books and embellishing textiles, the woodcut technique gradually evolved into its own form of art. Woodcuts belong to the category of relief printmaking, wherein negative space is carved out from a surface, leaving behind only the desired lines and shapes for the print. For instance, when crafting a woodcut, an artist would engrave into a wooden surface, subsequently applying ink to the remaining area. Subsequently, they typically position the inked surface onto a sheet of paper, and finally, by exerting pressure on the back of the block using a roller, printing press, or another tool, the ink is transferred to the page, resulting in the final print.

Linocut

Woodcuts and linocuts possess a similar visual characteristic as they require the artist to produce images using flat planes of color and fluid lines due to the relief process. While linocuts are considered a form of relief printmaking like woodcuts, linocuts differ in terms of material as they involve cutting into a linoleum sheet instead of a wooden block. Linocuts emerged during the 20th century.

This method is often taught to individuals who are new to printmaking because it is simple to grasp, and its inexpensive materials make it fairly easy to obtain. Moreover, due to the delicate nature of linoleum, one can transfer the print onto paper manually using a utensil, such as the back of a spoon or a baren, or with the assistance of a printing press.

Collagraph

Collagraphs, a different type of relief print that does not require a printing press, involve adding to a printing plate rather than removing from it. To achieve this, one would start by attaching thin materials such as fabrics, plants, or plastic to the plate. These objects would create the raised surface necessary for a relief print, but it is important to keep their height under a quarter of an inch to avoid damaging the printing paper.

Engraving

Engraving, the oldest form of intaglio printmaking, is also one of the most difficult techniques to master. In contrast to relief printmaking, where ink is applied to the top surface, intaglio involves creating cuts or grooves on a plate, ink application, and surface wiping so that the ink remains in the grooves. The plate is then placed in a printing press, which presses the paper into the grooves to pick up the ink. After separating the paper and plate, the ink is visible on the paper. To differentiate between the two techniques, it’s helpful to remember that in intaglio, anything carved into the plate will show up in ink, while in relief printmaking, it is the uncarved parts that will show up in ink.

Etching

The etching technique is widely used in intaglio. Unlike engraving, which involves removing material using a burin, etching involves making marks on a plate by incising it through a process known as “biting.” To begin, a metal plate is covered with a thin wax-like layer called the “ground,” and then a design is drawn onto the plate using a needle. It is not necessary to apply much pressure when making these marks since only the surface of the ground needs to be scratched. Once the drawing is complete, the back of the plate is coated with varnish, and then the plate is submerged in an acid bath.

Aquatint

The process of an aquatint has similarities to that of an etching, however, the emphasis of an aquatint lies more on shapes rather than lines. This method emerged during the late 1800s and gained popularity in the field of printmaking due to its ability to visually resemble watercolor, hence being named aquatint.

Monotype

When practicing relief printmaking, lines are created by carving the surface, while intaglio printmaking involves creating grooves by incising the surface. On the other hand, planographic printmaking does not modify the depth of the surface, instead, it involves creating images on a flat surface. One frequently utilized planographic technique is the monotype.

Monotypes are a printmaking technique that beginners often prefer, along with linocuts, because it is a simple process and does not need a printing press. There are various methods to create a monotype, but one commonly used technique involves coating the glass with printing ink using a roller. After covering the surface, ink is wiped away to form an image. Then, the inked side of the glass is placed onto a piece of paper and the back is firmly rubbed. When the paper and glass are separated, the image created on the glass will be printed in reverse.

Lithography

Lithography, similar to the monotype, is a type of planographic printmaking; however, their similarities essentially cease at that point. Lithographs, originating in Munich in 1798, are produced using a sizable piece of limestone or metal plate and necessitate an extensive procedure of generating an image on the stone or plate.

Screen print

Screen printing, also called silkscreen printing, is distinct because it does not involve making a print directly from the surface of a block or plate. Instead, the printing process involves using stenciling techniques to print images through a screen mesh.